strategies for police interviews

Peace model

P- prep and planning

E- engage and explain

A- account and challenge

C- closure

E- evaluation

P

plan interview, e.g. timeline, objectives, list of facts that need to be verified

E

engage with witness, form rapport and explain purpose of interview to them

A

allow interviewee to give 1st account of event with no interruptions, using open questions

C

close down the interview properly and give all the necessary contact details

E

evaluate the interview, this is the most important part of the process

Forensic hypnosis

Hypnosis = artificially induced trance, like sleep, where you have heightened susceptibility to suggestions, it can help to quit smoking, managing pain or psychotherapy

Research has proved hypnosis puts witnesses in a suggestible state where they can be easily misled by interviewer

Dwyer found that police hypnotised a boy who's mother disappeared, the boy said he saw his father murder her and his dad was sentenced to life imprisonment, but months later the mother showed up unharmed

Memon and Higham's review of the cognitive interview (1999)

4 key themes to review

1- effectiveness of various components of CI

2- relationship between CI and other methods

3- different measures of memory performance on findings

4- interviewer variables and effects of training quality

Effectiveness of CI interview components

Which component is the most effective? 1 way to know is isolating each component and testing them individually

Milne found no difference across the effectiveness of each component but the whole procedure resulted in higher recall than any of the components alone

Relationship between CI and other methods

The standard interview is not a standardised set of procedures, so it is impossible to compare it with the CI as they differ too much.

Trained interviewers may be more motivated than others, or less trained than others

Different measures of memory performance and effect on findings

The majority of studies of memory performance in terms of a % of correct statements or number of correct and incorrect statements

Measures of memory need to consider that the CI may change an interviewee's understanding of what the interviewer wants from them

Interviewer variables and effects of training quality on interviewer performance

The amount of training that interviewers are given vary from study to study

Cognitive interviewers said doing a CI = demanding and exhausting, more so than an SI, and it may produce more errors

Individual differences and prior experience need to be taken into account

Conclusions

We still need to research the CI further, establishing the appropriate comparison groups and suitable memory measures

Individual differences still are a significant challenge for researchers

Evaluation

High ecological validity but using fake events in interviews causes ethical issues

The cognitive interview

The standard interview

Police receive little training in interviewing techniques and they traditionally ask whatever they feel is relevant, and usually inturupt and ask short answer questions and follow inappropriate sequences of questions
Pedzek found that pushing a witness to answer questions leads to false information being provided


Cognitive interview

1- Context reinstatement = recall the context, like environmental factors, how they were thinking and feeling at the time, maybe even closing their eyes

2- In depth reporting = ask witnesses to tell the story of what happened in detail with no inturuptions

3- Narrative re-ording = asking the witness to tell the story from a different perspective or from a different starting point, or backwards

4- Reporting from different perspectives = telling the story again from other witness' point of views

Fisher found that 47% more information is recorded when using the cognitive interview

Reducing bias in collection of evidence

Analysts are only human and they are subject to biases, emotions and motivational influences that affect decision making, but the consequences of errors can have grave effects on others

Independent analysis of latent marks and comparison prints

Fingerprint examiners differed in terms of inter and intra observer consistency 

The latent mark should be done separate from the comparison print because if the experts had seen a comparison print before, they would've indentified fewer elements of the print

Identity parades

Identity parades, or line ups, are used when police have a suspect and a victim/witness to confirm the identity of the suspect

Usually a line up consists of 6 individuals, including the suspect and "foils", on the other side of a 1 way glass screen

1 weakness of line ups is that witnesses may feel under pressure to choose someone because they assume the suspect is in the line up

This can be reduced by telling them that the suspect is not necessarily in the lineup

The lineup could be double blind, whether the officer is not aware of the suspect, so they cannot unconsciously pass on clues to the witness

Identikits

Images are originally produced by police artists who create a hand likeness of the suspect

This moved onto a photofit, which builds a picture of a face by selecting eyes, noses, mouths, etc. from a bank of photographic images

More recently, 'facial compositions' have been introduced

Hall and Player's emotional context in latent prints (2008)

Context/background

analysis of fingerprints relies on ability of an individual to recognise, analyse and interpret friction ridges.

Emotional context impacts decision making during the examination

Usually, the latent marks are incomplete, smudged, distorted, rotated or obscured, so to secure quality, the process is conducted independently

Aim

To investigate whether fingerprint experts are emotionally affected by case details and to see if emotional context has a bias effect on the judgements of experts

Method

lab experiment, artificially generated task, p's were randomly allocated to 1 of 2 conditions

Iv= low context group (were told the crime was forgery) or high context group (were told the crime was murder)

Dv= whether the specialist read crime reports first, whether they thought the fingerprints were a match, or not, or insufficient, or sufficient to establish identity but not enough to compare, or whether they'd present the evidence in court

Procedure

All the p's were respondents to a request for volunteers to take part in an experiment (details not given)

70 fingerprint experts working for the Met Police with 3 months-30 years experience

Materials

To validate decisions, a finger impression was used from a known source

The finger was inked and put on a piece of paper

It was scanned to a computer and super imposed onto an image of a £50 note

It was positioned so the background of the note obscured the majority of the ridge details

The mark was then manipulated to control contrast and obstruct the discernible detail of the latent mark

14 copies of this park were printed for use in the experiment

All copies were compared to ensure consistency

All 10 printed fingers were given to p's who gave their opinions as to whether there was a match

Each expert had a magnifying glass and a Russel comparator (magnifying unit for comparing 2 images)

Procedure

P's randomly assigned into groups, and asked to treat the experiment as a job

They could come and go and speak together but not about the fingerprints

There was no time limit for the case

They were assigned into 1 of 2 groups, low emotional context or high emotional context

They were given an envelope containing 1 of the test marks, the relevant 10 print forms, the crime report and a sheet advising them of the contents

They were asked to decide if the mark was 

1- a match

2- not a match

3- insufficient

4- sufficient in identity but not enough to compare

They were then given a feedback sheet and asked whether or not they had referred to the crime report prior to their assessment of the marks, and to say what information they remembered reading

Results

57/70 read the crime report examining the prints

52% of the 30 who had high emotional context felt affected by that information

only 6% felt affected in the low context group

This shows that the relationship between type of context and effects on experts

70% were confident enough to present their marks in low context, but 17% in high emotional context

Conclusion

Emotional context does affect experts feelings, but it doesn't influence final outcome/decisions

Individualisation = being able to isolate a suspect by determining that a print could've only come from them

Evaluation

High ecological validity

Artificial because they knew it was a study, so more controlled but less valid

Willing to participate, harm was minimal and confidentiality was secure

collection + processing of forensic evidence

Motivating factors in collection of evidence

Rewards (payment satisfaction)

Hope and satisfaction of solving the crime

Case importance

Feelings tied to the case

Need for closure of the case

Fear of making a mistake

2 fingerprint experts complete the identification processes to identify and verify the judgements made and reduce the liklihood of misindentification

Problems with fingerprint analysis

Dror found that lack of consistency in fingerprint analysis because of inter-observer inconsistency and intra-oberver inconsistency

As fingerprints (latent prints) decrease in clarity, interpretation becomes harder and more subjective, so it's more open to bias

Decision making is sometimes affected by emotional context

Raine's brain abnormalities in murderers study (1997)

Context/background

Damage to the pre-frontal cortex results in impulsivity, immaturity, altered emotions, loss of self control and more general aggression

The amygdala controls neurones in the medial temporal lobe and processes emotions

Ngri = not guilty by reason of insanity

PET scans = to see if there are brain abnormalities in murderers who plead NGRI and to see if significant differences could be found between patterns of glucose metabolism in brains of individuals and murderers. This may show that the murderers pleading NGRI may be more prone to violence naturally

Aim

To study brain activity in non murderers and murderers using PET scans to see if there are any differences in the areas associated with violence

Pet scan = positron emission tomigrahy, a brain scanning technique where a participant is injected with a radioactive tracer used in brain respiration

The molecules of the tracer travel through the bloodstream and break down is detected by the scanner, which indicates levels of brain activity

Method

Sample

Murderers = 39 M and 2 F, on average 34 years, each pleaded NGRI but had been convicted

Control group = matched p's, 6 were schizophrenic

No one took drugs 2 weeks before the study

P's were scanned before in a continuous performance task (cpt) to increase brain activity 

30 seconds before being injected, they began CPT, so that the novelty of starting the task wouldn't show up as an 'event' on the scan

The CPT was 32 minutes long, then 10 "slices" of the brain were taken (images of the brain) at 10 mm intervals

Cortical peel technique = used for lateral brain areas (sides/surfaces)

Box technique = used for medial area (inside)

Results

All the tests were 2-tailed

Means and standard deviations for calculated for the 2 IV levels

Murderers showed less brain activity in lateral, medial and prefrontal cortex, they also had abnormal asymmetric activation in their limbic systems and lower activity in their hippocampus and thalamus

Conclusion

Areas that had abnormal activity were associated with aggressive behaviour, lack of fear, impulse control and expression of emotions

These all lead to extreme violence, so the brain activity could be 1 factor of criminal behaviour

Evaluation

Brain scanning is valid and reliable

Precision of location of the scans in p's are hard to maintain, so lower internal reliability 

The sample is generalisable

Because the p's were prisoners, it's hard to know how much informed consent they wanted to give and how much they felt they had to give

Biological strategy for preventing criminal behaviour

Lewinson found that 450 facial reconstruction operation patients in a prison who's behaviour was observed after both in prison and prison release over the next 10 years increased in cooperation with authority and increased participation in prison activities

They also experienced higher self esteem and it gave them a "new start"

what makes a criminal?

Psychological explanations of criminal behaviour

If criminal behaviour has a physiological cause it is controlled genetically, so it's a product of evolucion

Lombrose found that prisoners had similar features, so it maybe it comes down to natural selection

Criminal body types

1- Ectomorphic = thin/fragile

2- Mesomorphic = muscular/hard (most likely to be a criminal

3- Endomorphic = fat/soft

Modern physiological explanations for genes and criminality may be down to hereditary factors making it more likely that someone will be a criminal

Jacobs found that XYY men were more aggressive than XY men, and XYY men make up 1.5% of prisoners, they are also less intelligent generally

Osborn and West found that only 13% of non-criminal sons had convictions, but 40% sons with criminal fathers also had convictions, which suggests genes may be partly responsible for crime

Twin studies

MZ's share 100% genes, while DZ share 50% genes

Lyons found that MZ's are not more likely to be both be jailed than DZ's, which means environment is important in early criminal behaviour

Adoption studies

Hard to separate genetic effects in environment in twin studies, in adoption the 2 factors can be explored independently 

There are similarities between adoptive parents and kids, showing that environment is important

Having biological parents with criminal records increases the risk of sons doing the same, showing how genes influence crime

Adoptive parents with criminal records also had increased chance of their sons doing the same = supporting environmental influences

Non-physiological explanations of criminal behaviour

Kids could imitate criminal behaviour from parents, parents are high status models, which influence offspring a lot, same sex models are even more effective

Trzensniewski found that adolescents with low self esteem are more likely to engage in criminal activity

+ and - of behaviourist perspective

Strengths-

Scientific = research done by behaviourists is usually scientific = highly replicable = easily testable because it's about easily observed behaviour

Practical application = understanding roles of observational learning in aggression has helped the violence, we can use classical conditioning as mental disorder therapy and operant conditioning is used to modify compliance to medical recommendations

Weaknesses-

Reductionist = reducing something complex like behaviour, to something simpler like conditioning

By ignoring mental processes, behavioural theories are generally guilty of reductionism, ignores other aspects, e.g. biology, social, cognitive and so putting aggression down to a learned response = reductionist

Ethics = it's not ethical to forcibly alter behaviour and use punishment/manipulation to shape behaviour = unethical

behaviourist perspective

Behaviourist = accounts for behaviour in terms of observable events and ignores "mind" and "emotion", assumes behaviour is a consequence of history, including reinforcement and punishment, the current motivational state and controlling stimuli

Generally accepts inheritance and environmental factors as causes for psychology

learning theory= empiricism (knowledge coming from our senses) since we start a tabula (blank slate) and the physical sciences

Conditioning

Classical conditioning-

Pavlov = an unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus = a conditioned stimulus + conditioned response (this can explain salivation, arousal and fear)

Operant conditioning-

Skinner = learning by consequence, e.g. performing a behaviour that results in positive reinforcement makes us more likely to repeat that behaviour, and behaviour that results in negative reinforcement = less likely to repeat

Observing

When an observer imitates modelled behaviour (Bandura's bobo doll), attention to it and memory  = new behaviour

This is a newer idea and apparently suggests behaviour can be unlearned

+ and - of psychodynamic perspective

Strengths

Explanatory power, it explains some bizarre behaviour like multiple personalities, dreams and daydreams

Middle ground = we are strongly influenced by conscious factors but once we're aware of them, we can exert our free will


Weaknesses

Poor methodology, samples are unrepresentative because they involve p's getting psychotherapy and cannot be replicated, some of Freud's ideas come from self analysis so they are not very valid at all

Ideas are vague and hard to test, test and measure... e.g. the oedipus and electra complexes and the unconscious mind 

psychodynamic perspective

Psychodynamic = interaction of various conscious and unconscious mental/emotional processes influencing personality, behaviour and attitudes

Freud believed that were 3 levels of consciousness

1. Conscious = what we are aware of at any given time, e.g. what they're hearing, seeing and thinking

2. Preconscious = memories we can recall by choice, e.g. numbers, an address, product names

3. Unconscious = memories, desires and fears get repressed because otherwise they'd cause people extreme anxiety, but these factors still influence our behaviour without us realising

Freud said we have 2 instincts that are unconsciously in conflict, and one may be dominant over the other

1. Eros the life instinct = fulfils basic biological needs, e.g. the libido

2. Death instinct = urge for aggression and destruction, this causes war, violence and suicide

Unconscious components of personality

Id- innate, aggressive, sexual and obeys the pleasure principle

Ego- conscious, rational mind and works on the reality principle

Superego- Moral, includes ideas on how to behave and is usually learned from people close to us, is strongly influenced by early experiences and our relationships with our parents

Debates

Free will VS. Determinisim

Freewill = individuals can control their behaviour and they have responsibility for their choices and outcomes, e.g. kohlberg's moral development

Determinism = Behaviour is controlled by genes or past experiences, we have no control over our behaviour, e.g. Casey's delay of gratification 


Nature VS. Nurture

Nature argument = behaviour is influenced by genetics and biology, e.g. Baron Cohen's autism study

Nurture = behaviour is learned through learning and development, e.g. Chaney's funhaler study


Reductionism VS. Holism

Reductionism = breaks behaviour into separate parts and focuses on single factors, e.g. biology, e.g. Sperry's split brain study

Holism = wider view on behaviour, it is too complex to just focus on 1 factor, e.g. Lee et al's lying/truth rating study


Individual VS. situational

Individual = personal characteristics are the main cause of behaviour, e.g. Baron Cohen's theory of mind study (dispositional factors)

Situational = Looks at environmental context, including other people, as being the main cause of behaviour, e.g. Milgram's destructive obedience study

Idiographic VS. Nomothetic

Idiographic = "idios" meaning own or private, a social perspective to personalities, what makes each of us unique

Nomothetic = "nomos" meaning law, concerned with what we share with others and what establishes laws and generalisations, the laws of nature

Johnson + young's gender in kids's adverts (1995)

Context/background

Advertising invades the consciousness of almost everyone, sponsors pay to place adverts in certain locations

Childrens' viewing of adverts prepares them for their roles as capitalist consumers

Conventional sex roles underlie many many adverts, Welch found that girls talk more in adverts if the advert is mainly targeted at girls

Aim

To determine whether advertisers scripted tv adverts differently for females and males in school, linking toys to gender stereotypical roles

Method

sample

Samples of kids' tv shows were recorded, the same was repeated again 2 years later, 15 half an hour long programmes in first sample, 24 half an hour long programmes in the second sample, the total number of adverts was 478

Range of ads per programmed = 8.2-8.9

Advert categories

Food and drink        216

Toys                       188

Educational             21

Recreation               19

Film promotion         20

Other                      14

   

          478

Procedure

Content analysis = examines content and creates categories, suitable for their aim, and then counts an example from categories every time it happens, giving quant. data

Discourse analysis = critically analyses vocabulary, tone and other speech features to interpret meaning

Large % of adverts were for toys, so the toy category was deeper analysed and categorised into 3 groups-

1. ads for boys with boys in them

2. ads for girls with girls in them

3. ads for both with either both or no gender in them

Identified gender in voice-overs and gender exaggeration

Analysed speaking roles of M&F, and "power" in male ads, how many times it was said

Verb element categories=

1- action verbs

2- competition/destruction verbs

3- power/control verbs

4- limited activity verbs

5- feeding/nurturing verbs

Results

188 toy ads, more boy orientated, few gender neutral adverts

              1996      1997      1999      total

boy          30          24         48          102

girl          19           28        16           63

both        14           5           4            23

      

             63            57          68          188

Naming of toys = reinforced gender stereotypes

Boy ads were determined by action figures/computer games

Girl ads = dolls and animals

Adults = majority of ads were male voice in male and mixed, but female in girl adverts

Gender exaggeration = 80% of adverts, except in mixed

No feeding verbs  absent from boy ads but present in 66 female ads, competition verbs = 12x more in boy adverts,

limited activity = more in girl ads

little variation in action verbs

boys had more power than girls in adverts

"power" was used in 1/5 of boy adverts and only once in  a girls ad

Conclusion

Gender stereotypes underlie adverts

Reasons for this may be a reliance on historically successful marketing strategies/profitability in gender-specific consumer behaviour

Evaluation

Hard to approach the area with no preconceived ideas, also gender exaggeration is very subjective to judge, minimal ethical issues because there was no human p's

Strategies to reduce impact of adverts aimed at children

Fsa (food standards agency) = promotion of food to kids dominated by pre-sugared cereals, soft drinks, snacks and fast food

Media literacy

Young kids perceive tv adverts differently from older children and adults, Pine and Nash found that many kids below 7 lack understanding of persuasive intent, so they do not know when they are being manipulated or lied to by adults

This skill doesn't develop until about 12-13, Linn found

media literacy - critical awareness of mass media and adverts, including ability to analyse and evaluate different media sources

Media Smart and Be Adwise

Media smart = a non-profit programme for 6-11 year olds, to improve media literacy

Be Adwise = resources produced by media smart to teach young people to think critically about adverts in real life