Context/background
Tutoring - a tutor knows the answers but because the child doesn't, they help the child figure it out
Problem solving = mastery of problems necessary for success with longer problems, e.g. reading = deciphering of words = deciphering of sentences = deciphering of particular words
Scaffolding = the child carries out a task, or achieves a goal beyond his unassisted efforts, the adult controls the task so the learner can concentrate on the elements of their competence range
Aim
To examine instructional relationships between adult tutors and children with skill acquisition and problem solving
Method
Controlled observation, artificial environment, while p's completed a predetermined building task with intervention and guidance from a tutor
P's were observed in individual sessions, 20 minutes-1 hour
Interactions between them were observed and recorded
Procedure
Sample
volunteer sample, 30 kids (with parents) within a 5 mile radius of Cambridge, Massachusettes (near Harvard Uni)
Recruited through ads directed at parents
Recruited through ads directed at parents
Middle class or below, equally divided into 3,4, and 5 years old, half boys and girls in each group
Design
Kids tutored in individual sessions, 20 minutes to 1 hour
Tutor taught them to build a 3D structure with a level of skills beyond their own
The tutor instructed them verbally but let the kids be independent in doing the task themselves
Task was designed to be fun and interesting
Procedure
kids sat with 21 blocks spread in a jumble and played with those for 5 minutes
The tutor took 2 small blocks and demonstrated connecting them or told the children to connect them more, if they could do it alone, the aim was for the child to do as much as possible themselves
Pyramid of built blocks had 6 levels
3 different responses=
1. child ignored her and carried on playing
2. manipulated the connecting blocks
3. took new blocks and tried to make something similar to tutor's block structure
Assisted category = tutor indicated correct materials
Unassisted = child selected materials
Interventions from tutor =
1. direct assistance (tutor built the blocks for them)
2. verbal prompt when there was an error (e.g. does this look like this?)
3. straightforward promt e.g. "can you make more like this?"
Inter-scorer reliability- 2 scorers working independently got 94% agreement from 594 events watched on a video tape
Results
age median no. of acts % of acts unassisted showing verbal
3 39 10 40% 18%
4 41 50 63% 40%
5 32 75 80% 57%
Older kids didn't need previous trial and error as much, the 3 year olds took apart as much as they built, the 4 year olds took the same likeliness to reassemble constructs = able to recognise correct outcomes
Verbal instruction was more useful the older the children were
3 year olds paid little attention to verbal instruction
none of the 3 year olds put 4 blocks together correctly, but all 4 and 5 year olds did
Process of scaffolding
-Recruitment = get kid interested in task
-Reduction in degrees of freedom - simplifying task, reduce number of step needed
-Direction maintenance = Keep kid on task, despite distractions
-Marking critical features = Point out relevant features of task, identify difference between what they do and the correct outcome
-Frustration control = strategies to lower stress
-Demonstration = model the correct outcome
Conclusions
increasing age = greater likelihood of the task success
Younger children could recognise just as well when a task had been correctly achieved
Type of support needed by kids differed across age group
older children are more likely to accept and act on tutor's advice
Evauluation
Research with young children = less valid
Clinical interview = lower reliability
Unlikely there was any distress
small sample
Improving learning and revision
mnemonic = a technique to aid the memory and relies on familiar information so we can easily recall things (cognitive shortcuts)
Levels of processing
1- structural (encoding of physical appearance)
2- phonetic (encoding of sound)
3- semantic (encoding level of meaning)
Semantic processing = writing practice essays, explaining topics out loud or making mind maps, flash cards etc.